Tensions in Time: Crypto Art and Temporality
Written by Ana Inez Olszewski
Edited by Courtney Squires
Introduction
In March 2021, Beeple’s Everydays: The First 5,000 Days, a work of crypto art, sold at Christie’s online auction for sixty-nine million dollars.1 This sale made headlines around the world, as audiences contemplated purchasing an intangible work of art for such an unimaginable sum. Crypto art is a medium of collectible digital art whose ownership is certified cryptographically through its registration with an NFT, or non-fungible token, on a decentralized public ledger called a blockchain. Their possession and intangibility continue to be a controversial subject of discussion in the art world. There is an incredible amount of speculation and intrigue around the subject of crypto art in popular media but limited critical research. As of now, attempts to pinpoint the impact of blockchain technology on the circulation of art remain unresolved, and the aesthetic characteristics of the medium have yet to be defined by the art community. The subject of crypto art is often dismissed or misunderstood by art historians and art critics, many of whom have not fully accepted the arrival of the novel medium or do not fully comprehend the technological system through which it operates. This has led to a lack of academic discussion surrounding the medium, its aesthetics, and its functions.
In aiming to explore the aesthetics and function of crypto art, I propose that crypto art be investigated in terms of its relationship with time. Christine Ross, in her book The Past Is the Present; It’s the Future Too: The Temporal Turn in Contemporary Art, declares “contemporary art…” to be a “…pivotal site of temporal exploration”.2 This temporal exploration that Ross suggests can be conveyed by forms of contemporary art and can be further explored in the crypto artwork Everydays: The First 5,000 Days by Beeple and the crypto art series Remember Me by Luna Ikuta. In both artworks, the artists Luna Ikuta and Beeple utilize time dilation and slowness as an aesthetic in their crypto artworks. However, the artistic act of stretching time contrasts the speed and velocity of blockchain technology that allows crypto art to function. Therefore, in the crypto artwork Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and the crypto art series Remember Me, there is a tension created between the time dilation crafted by the artist – which I will refer to as “lived time” – and the velocity of blockchain technology which enables crypto art to function – which I will refer to as “transaction time”. The exploration of temporal passing and the tensions in time within the crypto artworks Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me will lead to a greater understanding of the aesthetics and functions of crypto art and the implications of the medium in both the artistic and the economic community.
Figure 1. Beeple, Everydays: The First 5,000 Days, 2021.
Presenting the Crypto Art
Everydays: The First 5,000 Days (Fig 1) is the work of Beeple, the pseudonym of the digital-artist-turned-crypto-artist Michael Winkelmann.3 The crypto artwork is a collage in the form of a JPG image of the artist’s daily sketches for five-thousand days. Everydays: The First 5,000 Days drew inspiration from a similar work by the artist Tom Judd, who created a compilation of his everyday sketches created over the course of one year.4 In an interview with The Washington Post, Beeple was fascinated by the ability of daily sketches to record the progression of his artistic improvement, and understood that undergoing such a project would allow him to improve his craft.5 His artistic progression is clear when examining the chronological mosaic of images, which can be read from top left to bottom right. In the top left are Beeple’s first drawings, and as viewers move their eyes to images on the bottom right, it is possible to view the improvement in his artistic skills (Fig 2).6 However, Beeple admits that the mission of the work was not to create a masterpiece, but to exercise the daily practice of his artistic ability.7
Figure 2. Beeple, Everydays: The First 5,000 Days, upper left panels (top image) lower right panels (bottom image), 2021.
Remember Me (Fig 3) is a crypto art series by the artist Luna Ikuta. The project involved the minting of thirty-nine thousand, one hundred and thirty-six NFTs that each present identical sequences of life of the same tulip.8 Those who watched the tulips from the Remember Me garden could follow the stages of life of the flowers created by Ikuta, whose lifespan was represented by the phases Birth, Life, Afterlife, and Memory (Fig 4). Birth began April 11, 2002, with the words “are you there?” appearing on the blank black screen of the JPG image of each crypto artwork. Life was an inverted time lapse, in which the video of the tulip blooming in water over the course of five days was spliced into 999 images that showcased the “…simulation of growth” in real-time when the page was refreshed.9 Afterlife showcased a ghostly rendering of the same tulip, whose color had been removed through decellularization.10 The tulip sways in the water, its movements captured in “…an infinite loop”.11 Once the Afterlife stage was completed, the stage Memory appeared on May 1st, 2022.12 This stage of life was represented by an empty black screen and continued to signal to the viewer that the sequence of life of the tulip had been completed.
Figure 3. Luna Ikuta, Remember Me, (tulips depicted during “Life” phase), 2022.
Figure 4. Luna Ikuta, Remember Me, (tulip phases of “Birth,” “Life,” “Afterlife,” and “Memory”), 2022.
Both Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me are time-based projects whose artists Beeple and Ikuta, respectively, craft their own temporality within each work. To fully explore the relationship of time present in Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me, it is necessary to understand the intricacies of the technology within which crypto art functions. Therefore, the exploration of crypto art and its temporality begins with the investigation of its technological systems, to allow the understanding of what exactly crypto art is and how it functions.
Understanding the Blockchain
The authors of Crypto Art: A Decentralized View define the blockchain as “…a distributed system using cryptography to secure an evolving consensus about an economically valuable token”.13 In layperson’s terms, the blockchain is a cryptographic public ledger that stores information in individual blocks.14 These blocks of information contain the list of transactions and the timestamps of when these transactions occurred.15 Every transaction consists of “… a sender, a receiver, a token that is transferred from sender to receiver, and a fee of the transaction”.16 A token is a measurable value on the blockchain, like an artwork or a coin.17 While the blockchain refers to the cryptographic system, there are many different blockchains. Blockchains are like vehicles of transportation: there are many modes of transit, and they are not all created equal. One of the most well-known blockchains is Bitcoin, a crypto currency represented by a fungible token. Fungibility is an economic term that describes “…the ability to be exchanged with another asset of the same value”.18 Crypto art, instead of being represented by a fungible token, is represented by a non-fungible token, or a token that represents “a unique digital asset” that “cannot be replaced by another”.19 These non-fungible passengers require a different kind of vehicle, or blockchain, to be transported on. The Ethereum blockchain “…remains by far the main blockchain when it comes to NFT transactions", and is the most common blockchain referenced when discussing crypto art sales and transactions.20
Blockchain technology can be understood as a “…new way of building information technology that has never been done before”.21 Blocks are connected through a series of hashes, which serve as identifiers to each block on the chain.22 Each block contains its identifying hash and the hash for the previous or “parent” block on the chain.23 If someone changed the information within a block, the hash of the block would change, and all future hashes would be discredited.24 To make the blockchain even more difficult to manipulate there is also a proof-of-work algorithm for every new block created. To create, or mine, a new block, a hard computational problem must first be solved and can only be attacked with a brute-force approach.25 The problem is sent out to all potential miners, and the first to solve the problem creates the block and receives a reward.26 Therefore, it becomes even more difficult to modify the information blocks as they require the proof-of-work to be solved of all blocks before the block you would like to change can be altered.27
The combination of both functions makes the blockchain very difficult, or next to impossible, to be changed or manipulated. The information on the blockchain therefore becomes an immutable, or unchangeable truth constructed through code. There are many perspectives of what the arrival of blockchain technology means to the circulation of information. Whether it is the embodiment of a dream or a nightmare, the blockchain eliminates the human element within the circulation of information technology, as it is a system that “…replace(s) trust with proof”.28 The reliance on blockchain technology for the transaction of crypto artwork places the trust of information out of human hands and into the hands of code.
Eliminating the Mediator
When an artist uploads a work unto a crypto art gallery, a transaction is created on the Ethereum blockchain. An NFT, or non-fungible token, associated with this work of art is created through this transaction, and transferred to the cryptographic portfolio of the artist, known as their digital “wallet”.29 After the transaction is digitally approved by the artist, the artwork is broadcasted throughout the nodes of the IPFS network, or InterPlanetary File System, peer-to-peer network which connects the image with a unique code.30 This allows the same image to always have the same name and always be identified as a unique asset. The data is time stamped and secured, creating a visible record of the transaction for anyone who would like to view it.31 When the artwork is ready to be sold, the price is paid by the buyer in Ether, the currency of the Ethereum blockchain, and the non-fungible token is passed into the digital wallet of the buyer.32
The process of purchasing a work of crypto art differs greatly from the normal process of purchasing a work of physical art. Buying a work of art is a social process, and the negotiations and discussions between artists, buyers, and gallerists to achieve the final sale of a work can prove to be an emotionally strenuous experience.33 Thus, the process of purchasing a physical work of art is “…a system of gatekeepers, mediators, intermediaries and institutions that structure the art world and construct consensus on art quality and taste”.34 The traditional art market requires the presence of these mediators to function. They represent the body that buyers place their faith and trust in for guidance in the process of purchasing a physical work. However, these intercessors also create a disconnection between the artist and the buyer.
Blockchain technology removes the social element of art purchasing by creating a direct connection between artist and buyer. Through this novel technology, the circulation of information is entrusted in code instead of human mediators, allowing for fewer people and opinions to be involved in the purchasing process. Faith in humans instead is replaced by faith in code, such as smart contracts. Smart contracts refer to the code written into the blockchain transaction when the NFT is minted by the artist, which articulates the conditions of the artist for the artwork it is attributed to.35 These conditions can include and are not limited to the price in Ether of the work, reproducibility rights, and the percentage the artist might continue to make on secondary or tertiary sales of the work.36 The contract is considered “smart” because it is executed independently, having what is considered a “trustless execution”.37 Because of their location on the blockchain, these contracts are immutable and distributed, meaning that they are unable to be changed and are participating in a decentralized system in which anyone can view an NFTs’ smart contract.38
Both the crypto artwork Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and the crypto art series Remember Me are ingrained in this decentralized system. The integration of each artwork into the blockchain can be explored by examining the functional structure of each artwork. Everydays is identified within the Etherum blockchain by its unique token ID (40913) and smart contract address (0x2a46f2ffd99e19a89476e2f62270e0a35bbf0756), which identifies the work as “…globally unique”.39 Each individual NFT within the crypto art series Remember Me has a similar unique token ID and smart contract address that identifies each of the thousands of crypto artworks within the series as a distinctive asset. Each unique token ID and smart contract address is a direct representation of the integration of each artwork within blockchain technology. This integration in blockchain technology is viewable through Etherscan, a website that serves as an analytics platform for the Ethereum blockchain.40 By entering the token ID or smart contract address of Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and any artwork within the Remember Me series, the entire transaction history of the work is visible and open to the public.
This removal of the human element eliminates mediators in crypto art transactions and grounds the medium of crypto art in velocity.41 Crypto artworks such as Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and the series Remember Me accelerate processes of purchases and transactions and allows “...crypto art events, such as creations, bids, and sales, [to] take place at the fine time granularities of minutes and even seconds”.42 This makes evident the instilled acceleration of time in blockchain technology, and further research is necessary to explore the specific rates of transaction between artist and buyer in the traditional art market in comparison to the crypto art market.
Speed and Velocity
Speed and velocity play a vital role in the function of blockchain technology. The blockchain eliminates social processes of artwork transactions for crypto artists and mediators, directly connecting buyers to the artists and accelerating artwork transactions. This acceleration and compression of time visible within the velocity created by blockchain technology can be referred to as “transaction time”. Transaction time is present within all forms of crypto art, as “crypto art rests on the shoulders of blockchains”.43 Thus, transaction time is embedded in Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me, as they are grounded in the velocity of blockchain technology.
Blockchain technology is accelerating the circulation of art, and transaction time attempts to define a new method of the temporal passing occurring through crypto art that remains unprecedented in the traditional art market. If crypto art can be understood as increasing the velocity of traditional practices of the art market, then perhaps transaction time also has economic underpinnings. The relationship between transaction time and economics can be further picked apart through the theories of David Harvey, who discusses effects of time-space compression on globalization. Harvey theorizes that the compression of time is correlated to the acceleration in the circulation of capital and the consumption of goods.44 In his book The Condition of Postmodernity, Harvey states that the “…compression of time is associated with an acceleration in the turnover of capital (via credit, electronic and plastic money, etc.) and an acceleration in consumption”.45
Through the theories of Harvey, the transaction time of Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me, along with other works of crypto art can be understood as an implied technological acceleration that mimics the commercialism of the traditional art market, but perhaps with greater intensity. So, while the speed of transactions is accelerating, the transaction time of crypto art may only emphasize the current capitalistic social structures prevalent in the art world that cryptographic systems have replaced.46 As of 2021, the NFT market was worth $2,798,220,643 (USD), speaking to the economic success of this new methodology of art distribution.47 This economic success can be understood as the result of the instantaneous transactions of the NFT, as blockchain technology and smart contracts allow the speed and rate in which art exchanges hands to be faster than ever. Crypto art, like traditional art, could even be seen as an economic investment, especially in the case of Everydays: The First 5,000 Days, which broke records with its sale for 69 million dollars (USD).48 It is ironic that blockchain technology, founded on the principle of decentralization, has been altered to serve the capitalist machine—an issue that demands further exploration.
Perhaps for this reason, many theorists are skeptical of the factors associated with the speed of technology. Paul Virilio, the author of Speed and Politics, views the increasing speed that technology offers as the ruination of progress. Speed, according to Virilio, offers the perception of improvement, while true advancement is lacking. This idea is emphasized in Speed and Politics, in which he states that the “… Western man has appeared superior and dominant, despite inferior demographics, because he appeared more rapid…”.49 Through the perspective of Virilio, the transaction time of crypto art may be understood as the essence of destruction, as “speed…ruins progress”.50 The negation of the concepts of instantaneity and the compression of time are further encouraged by Jonathan Crary, the author of 24/7: Late Capitalism and the Ends of Sleep, in which he identifies 24/7 time as “…a static redundancy that disavows its relation to the rhythmic and periodic textures of human life”.51 For both Virilio and Crary, speed destroys the normal rhythm of temporal passing. Therefore, the velocity at which crypto art is transacted eliminates the natural pace of lived time. Chained by the shackles of transaction time, Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me are freed from the velocity of blockchain technology by the ability of Beeple and Ikuta, respectively, to craft and manipulate temporality within the framework of each crypto artwork.
Expansion and Dilation
Everdays: The First 5,000 Days is a collage of the artist’s daily sketches for five thousand days, displaying the dilation of over thirteen years of time in one singular JPEG image. There is no overall theme that ties all of these works together. Each work represents a separate day, and other than all being daily sketches by the same artist there are very few parallels that can be drawn between the works. This makes the experience of viewing the work overwhelming because each image becomes lost among the others, a sea of color and contrasting tones. The artwork does not exist to represent a singular moment, but instead to represent the daily moments of over thirteen years. The lack of uniformity between the images and their contrasting subject matters speak to the time dilation that Beeple has created within Everdays: The First 5,000 Days. Beeple further manipulates the time of the work by determining the frame of time that the work displays: in this case, it is five-thousand days. Through his attempts to stretch time within Everydays: The First 5,000 Days, Beeple crafts a time expansion and slowness within the essence of the artwork that counteracts the transaction time of the blockchain technology already ingrained in the work. This stretching of time – lived time – can be viewed as Beeple challenging the limits of the novel crypto art medium, as by crafting a dilation of time within Everydays: The First 5,000 Days he is battling against the blockchain technology that all crypto art is embedded in.
This tension between transaction time and lived time can also be witnessed in the series Remember Me by Luna Ikuta. Ikuta also manipulates the passage of time within each of her works by controlling the rate at which the identical individual tulips of each NFT bloom and mature. Ikuta constructs a tulip lifetime by creating four stages of life that each flower experiences, which are Birth, Life, Afterlife, and Memory. These stages of life skip the stage of death, which is instead replaced by Afterlife and Memory, which allow the tulips to evade an ending. Instead of an ending, their consciousness seemingly lives on forever within the final stage, Memory. This stretching of time is also witnessed in the Life phase, which displays 999 individual frames of the tulip blooming over the course of five days, updated accordingly so that the tulip appears to be blooming at a normal rate.52
Ikuta reveals in an interview with Right Click Save that the goal for the project “…was to create a simulation of growth that digitally mirrored what took place naturally”.53 Ikuta is aware of the role time plays in crypto art, and she intentionally challenges transaction time through her utilization of lived time in Remember Me. She further discloses her view on transaction time and states, “Time in the NFT space is so chaotic. Insanity is the new normal. Inverting that time back to ‘normal’ using blockchain became interesting.”54 Through her crypto art series Remember Me, Ikuta acknowledges the compression of time within the crypto art space and attempts to challenge it through the implementation of lived time into her work.
Ikuta is not the first to create a distinction between the temporal passing of technology and that of natural life. This distinction between different types of time is also articulated by Henri Bergson the author of Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness. In his book, Bergson makes the distinction between the time of watches and the “duration lived, a duration in which our consciousness perceives”, or the passing of time as it is lived and felt.55 A similar distinction is made by Bernard Stiegler in his book Technics and Time, who discusses the paradox between the “…temporality of the ‘lived’” and that of the objective.56 It seems that while the medium of crypto art may be novel, the tenets of temporality present in the crypto artwork Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and the crypto art series Remember Me are not unprecedented. While the differences between the speed of technology and the rhythm of natural life are widely acknowledged, they have not yet been explored extensively within the crypto art medium.
In The Past is the Present: It’s the Future Too, Christine Ross explores the aesthetic role of time within contemporary art. Ross discusses the “…inseparability of time and narrativity”, viewing the narrative as an important way that humans inject meaning into moments of their life. In Everdays: The First 5,000 Days, Beeple constructs “lived time” into the essence of the work, creating an artwork in which time is dilated into a narrative that he controls. The narrative that Beeple creates then, through this work, represents both the elongation of time and returns a human element of the temporal experience that is lacking in transaction time. In her series Remember Me, Ikuta similarly injects narrativity into her work through the intentional dilation of the natural life of the tulip. The creation of the narrative representing lived time also allows Ikuta to return a human presence of temporal passing to Remember Me, an element that creates a strain against the transaction time of the work.
Within both Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me, the artist crafts a narrative of temporality that inserts humanity into a medium that rests on a technology that is purely cryptographic. This temporal critique then can be understood as “…a perceptual critique as well as a solicitation to perceive”.57 The temporal narrative that Beeple and Ikuta create in Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me, respectively, create a space of tension between the lived time of the crypto artworks and the transaction time of the crypto artworks, creating a space that invites viewers to acknowledge and critique both modes of temporal passage. Future examination is required of the construction of how time-based crypto artworks challenge the medium of art by questioning the blockchain technology it is founded on.
Looking Towards the Future
The crypto artwork Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and the crypto art series Remember Me create a tension between the lived time crafted by the artist and the transaction time of blockchain technology. The expansion and dilation of time present in the lived time of both artworks challenges the transaction time represented in the speed and velocity of blockchain technology. The acknowledgement of these tensions in time within Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me calls for further investigation of the relevance of time-based crypto art projects and temporality as an emerging aesthetic within the medium. The discussion of the temporality of crypto art also creates a space within which the economic implications of the speed of blockchain technology can be questioned. Although this paper only examines the presence of lived time within Everydays: The First 5,000 Days and Remember Me, the further examination of time may be the key to unlock the door to more critical discussion within the crypto art space.
Endnotes
Jacob Kastrenakes, “Beeple Sold An NFT for $69 Million,” The Verge, March 11, 2021, https://www.theverge.com/2021/3/11/22325054/beeple-christies-nft-sale-cost-everydays-69-million.
Christine Ross, The Past is the Present; It’s The Future Too (New York: Continuum, 2012), 4.
KK Ottesen, “The Digital Artist Known as Beeple: ‘I’m just trying to expand people’s idea of what art is,’” The Washington Post, March 22, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/2022/03/22/digital-artist-known beeple-im-just-trying-expand-peoples-idea-what-art-is/.
Ottesen, “The Digital Artist Known As Beeple: ‘I’m just trying to expand people’s idea of what art is.’”
Ottesen, “The Digital Artist Known As Beeple: ‘I’m just trying to expand people’s idea of what art is.’”
Max Hodge, “Canvassing the Masterpiece: Beeple’s ‘Everydays: The First 5000 Days,’” Kazoart, March 1, 2022, https://www.kazoart.com/blog/en/canvassing-the-masterpiece-beeples-everydays-the-first-5000-days/.
Ottesen, “The Digital Artist Known As Beeple: ‘I’m just trying to expand people’s idea of what art is.’”
Charlotte Kent, “The Life and Times of the NFT,” interview by Charlotte Kent, Right Click Save, May 2, 2022, https://www.rightclicksave.com/article/the-life-and-times-of-the-nft.
Kent, “The Life and Times.”
Kent, “The Life and Times.”
Kent, “The Life and Times.”
Kent, “The Life and Times.”
Franceschet, M, G Colavizza, T Smith, B Finucane, M.L Ostachowski, S Scalet, J Perkins, J Morgan, and Sebastián Hernández, “Crypto Art: A Decentralized View,” Leonardo 54, no. 4 (2021): 4, https://doi.org/10.1162/leon_a_02003.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 4.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 4.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 5.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 5.
“Yearly NFT Market Report 2021: How NFTs Affect the World,” NonFungible Corporation, (2021): 16.
“Yearly NFT Market Report 2021,” 16.
“Yearly NFT Market Report 2021,” 36.
Ruth Catlow, Marc Garrett, Nathan Jones and Sam Skinner, eds. Artists Re:thinking the Blockchain (Torque Editions & Furtherfield, 2017), 86-87, https://torquetorque.net/wpcontent/uploads/ArtistsReThinkingTheBlockchain.pdf.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 4.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 4.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 4.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 5.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 5.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 5.
Catlow et al., Artists Re:thinking the Blockchain, 87.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 3.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 7.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 8.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 8.
Can-Seng Ooi. "Cacophony of Voices and Emotions: Dialogic of Buying and Selling Art." Culture Unbound 2, no. 3 (2010): 348.
Ooi, “"Cacophony of Voices and Emotions,” 348.
Simply Explained. “Smart Contracts – Simply Explained,” Infographic. YouTube, November 20, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZE2HxTmxfrI&t=196s.
“Smart Contracts – Simply Explained,”, Infographic.
“Smart Contracts – Simply Explained,”, Infographic.
“Smart Contracts – Simply Explained,”, Infographic.
“ERC-721 Non-Fungible Token Standard,” Etherum, August 15, 2022. https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/standards/tokens/erc-721/.
Etherscan, “Home.”
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 9.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 9.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 3.
David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity : An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. (Oxford England: Blackwell, 1990), 285, https://files.libcom.org/files/David%20Harvey%20-%20The%20Condition%20of%20Postmodernity.pdf.
Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, 285.
Franceshet et al., “Crypto Art,” 17.
“Yearly NFT Market Report 2021,” 105.
Kastrenakes, “Beeple Sold An NFT for $69 Million.”
Paul Virilio, Speed and Politics (New York: Semiotext(e), 1986), 46-47.
Virilio, Speed and Politics, 46.
Jonathan Crary, 24/7 : Late Capitalism and the Ends of Sleep, (London: Verso, 2013), 8-9.
Kent, “The Life and Times.”
Kent, “The Life and Times.”
Kent, “The Life and Times.”
Henri Bergson, Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness (London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2004), 129,193. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/mcgill/reader.action?docID=1702332.
Bernard Stiegler and Stephen Barker, Technics and Time 3: Cinematic Time and the Question of Malaise (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020), 64, https://doi.org/10.1515/9780804799362.
Ross, The Past is the Present; It’s The Future Too, 12.
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