Divine Transformation: Reconfiguring Kali’s Feminist Iconography in Contemporary Western Art
Written by Sienna Daniels
Edited by Courtney Squires
Introduction
The Hindu goddess Kali has one of the most recognizable and popular iconographies in contemporary Western art. The scope of this research uses the visual analysis of contemporary art works representing this iconography in hopes of gaining a clear perspective of perceptions and representations of Kali, as well as the seemingly general understanding in the West that Kali stands as a symbol for feminist ideals with very little understanding of historical and cultural context. To accurately assess this, the visual analysis will address how images of Kali displayed in the West were created in contemporary art and how Kali is represented and perceived as a feminist icon in these Western settings. Based on previously conducted research, it is possible to hypothesize that images of Kali will be created, displayed, and received differently based on their context. Furthermore, the perception of her as a feminist icon will have different interpretations and presentations based on context, with continuities in the visual depictions of divine femininity.
Historical Analysis
To fully understand contemporary depictions of Kali in the West, it is imperative to understand and evaluate the evolution of her iconography and western conceptions in the West from a historical lens.
Figure 1: Tantra Art: Rajasthan Goddess Kali Triumphant on Battlefield, gouache, 18th c., Artstor Slide Collection
Evolution of Kali’s Depictions
Kali’s iconography has changed drastically over time, from South Asian descriptions in religious texts to contemporary art. The visual depiction of Kali in Tantra Art: Rajasthan Goddess Kali Triumphant on Battlefield (18th Century) [Figure 1], provides context about the way that Kali’s icon graphic has evolved. This piece of Tantric art shows Kali as a thin, disproportionate figure with four long arms, an angry expression, wispy, unruly hair that flies out in all directions, and is shown in context on a battlefield standing right in front of Durga. Negative interpretations of depictions of Kali are evident very early on in her encounters with a Western audience. In Rachel McDermott and Jeffrey Kripal’s book Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West, these descriptions are noted, such as in David Kinsley’s essay that emphasizes “her representation in the Hindu tradition as “terrible,” “offensive,” “destructive,” “awful,” and “dangerous,” noting that she, “has a long history of association with criminals and . . . murderous Thugs, even as early as the Bhagavata Purana”[1]. The conceptions of Kali as a dark and uncontrolled figure resulted in deep anxieties about her worship as well as visual depictions.
These anxieties, along with influences of Western art, changed the early depictions of Kali in South Asia and Europe. The changes can be related to the way “British imperialists sought to domesticate and colonize her and thereby to diffuse the dangerous and erotic tensions evoked”, therefore having a neutralizing and diluting of Kali’s iconography[2]. These changes in depictions were also influenced by Western “Fine Art '' forms, as discussed in Kajri Jain’s Gods in the Bazaar: The Economies of Indian Calendar Art. Images of Hindu goddesses were influenced by Renaissance Humanism, bourgeois realism, and the clinical gaze, resulting in homogenization of taste, landscape backdrops, and humanizations of the gods[3]. These changes are evident in an Indian poster titled Kali [Figure 2], in which Kali has light blue vibrant skin, proportionate and attractive features, and an aesthetically pleasing landscape behind her full of other beautiful female warriors. Due to the negative reception of Kali, factors of her iconography that were unsettling, such as disproportionate anatomy and subjective ugliness, gradually decreased as the popularity of Kali images increased.
Kali’s popularity has increased greatly as a result not only of the digestibility of her iconography, but also capitalism with increases in image production and accessibility. Images of the goddess have been massively circulated globally. In India, Hindu nationalist movements have used the iconic imagery to have representations of females coincide with a new powerful set of equations made by nationalist discourse between 'tradition' and 'femininity between the 'nation' and the mother-goddess[4]. This is important to note, and the equation of nationalism and Hindu goddesses in that context is more focused on Bharat Mata than Kali. The depictions of Kali in the Western context have evolved into a reception of the goddess as a feminist icon. McDermott explains the contemporary growth in the popularity of her images, stating that “Kali sells. Her face and body have become far more noticeable in the public arena than they were ten years ago.”[5] Contemporary images of Kali in the West depict her as a female warrior and symbolic feminist icon, which include cross-cultural influences, but are based in Western binaries and perceptions of feminism.
Figure 2: Indian, Kali, Poster, Bard College: Richard Davis God Poster Collection
Understanding Kali in the West
To conduct proper visual analyses of Kali as a feminist icon in the West, understanding the basis of her conceptions in the Western context is imperative. There are some key contributors to the Western conception of Kali as a feminist icon, and this research will analyze how these are represented visually in contemporary art. Rita Gross has identified these contributors in “Hindu Female Deities as a Resource for the Contemporary Rediscovery of the Goddess," as the bisexuality of deities in general, and the goddess's own strength and capability, her embodiment of polarities and opposites, her role as a mother, her universal range of activity, and her explicit sexuality[6]. McDermott has expanded upon these characteristics, due to her complexities and potential for liberation. Three key archetypes of visual representations of the female subject are the Virgin, the Mother, and the Crone, Kali is arguably all three, she is also representation of active expression of both motherhood and sexuality[7]. Her ability to represent numerous complexities within herself, such as the mother and the warrior, resonate with Western Feminism and can be liberating to an audience of Western women subjected to the Western context of the patriarchy.
Although these feminist interpretations of Kali have positive elements, there are also problematic components to these conceptions of the goddess. First and foremost, Kali as an feminist icon usually does not include accurate contextual and historical information regarding the religious and cultural origins of the goddess. Disregard for cultural, religious, and historical contexts can have negative implications. Judy Tobler’s article “Goddesses and Women’s Spirituality: Transformative Symbols of the Feminine in Hindu Religion'' exemplifies representing Kali as a feminist icon can be lost in translation, because “the concept of God as male - but simultaneously disembodied and transcendent” is founded on a long history of patriarchy in Western society[8]. Therefore, as a divination from these patriarchal ideals, Kali represents feminism in the West, however, in Hinduism both men and women worship these feminine powers and both benefit from them. Therefore, Kali is a feminist icon and a deviation from male-dominated religious traditions in the West, but this interpretation pays no attention to the male-dominatied traditions in Hinduism. Vrinda Dalmiya’s “Loving Paradoxes: A Feminist Reclamation of the Goddess Kali'' also notes that Kali is a feminist icon because “most reclamations of Kali concentrate on the symbol of the goddess as representing a collapse of typically Western binary thinking”, and argues that this lacks understanding as she is taken out of context from original forms on Hindi’s Kali-bhakti[9]. McDermott also highlights these issues in “The Western Kali,” from Devi: Goddess in India, as the overinterpretation and extreme appropriation of Kali can lead to ill-informed reclamation of female deities who were originally a product of male thinking, incorrect comparisons between Hindu goddesses and other popular religious figures, and a lack of awareness and dehumanization of Indian women[10]. These problematic elements of Western appropriation and interpretations of Kali have been visually represented in her evolution as a feminist icon.
Kali in the Western Museum
One of the most important places Kali depicted in contemporary art is in the museum. Many Western museums have represented Kali. The way that contemporary art is created, displayed, and received by audiences in the context of the museum can reveal the perceptions of Kali in Western settings as well the ways she is regarded based on her gender.
The British Museum’s Murti
The art installation Mutri (2022) [Figure 3] from the new exhibition Feminine power: the divine to the demonic at the British Museum is a statue of Kali. The museum itself has provided an informational page about this piece as a part of the exhibition, and has championed it as a representation of Kali that is cross-cultural. The piece was commissioned for the exhibition by artist Kaushik Ghosh in Calcutta, India, with members of the London Durgotsav as consultants on the creation of the exhibition. The British Museum's article “Feminine Power: Welcoming a New Goddess Kali Icon'' references the piece as “the Kali icon was the product of a wonderful collaboration between the Museum and a collective of devotees from the London Durgotsav Committee”, with “the exhibition itself a cross-cultural look at the profound influence of female spiritual beings within global religion and faith and the LDC Committee’s expert insights and personal perspectives enabled the Museum to create a nuanced, richer cultural understanding of the enduring nature and contemporary relevance of the Goddess Kali today.”[11]
Figure 3: Kaushik Ghosh, Murti, Calcutta, India, 2022, The British Museum
In Mutri, there are many common iconographic elements of Kali as she is depicted standing on Shiva, with a severed demon head in one of her four arms and a weapon in the other. Each of her hands are covered in blood, as well as her tongue. This representation of the goddess does incorporate some original elements of Kali’s depiction as she is clearly a fierce warrior, her skin is a deep black tone, and the installation did not shy away from showing blood. However, there are many modern aspects as well, because she is clearly recognizable as Kali, and she is very humanized in her proportions and length of her tongue. The image is very digestible to all audiences, and does not offer a challenge to the modern viewer. The digestibility of the image is evident not only in the appearance of the installation, but in its materiality as well. Traditionally these murti are made of clay from the banks of the river Ganges, however due to the construction of the piece specifically for the museum, it is made out of fiberglass and oil based paint (a small amount of clay was included during construction to pay homage to the traditional technique).
“Feminine Power: Welcoming a New Goddess Kali Icon” offers some insight into the reception of the museum’s depiction of Kali in a quote from Barnana and Samaroha Das from the London Durgotsav Committee:
“Our Kali, unlike the new one at the British Museum, was blue. I once asked my mother why is Maa Kali black in some places and blue in others? My mother replied, "It is how the creator of the statue wants to portray her that defines her body color. For some she is the epitome of matri-shakti (maternal strength) – strong but calm like the sky and a kind protector, like a mother who protects her children… for others, her image signifies the destroyer of evils, wild and intense like the ocean. Maa Kali is the power of the divine over the demon. She is our mother"[12].
The British Museum has clearly classified Kali as a feminist icon, due to the inclusion of the work in the new feminist exhibition. However, the cross-cultural collaboration in the creation and display of the piece, as well as the consideration of numerous perspectives in audience perception provides the sense that she is well received as a feminist icon cross-culturally.
Kali’s Seat at the Dinner Table
Judy Chicago’s The Dinner Party (1974-79) [Figure 4] is a mixed media installation piece, regarded as one of the most important feminist contemporary art pieces. The installation is a triangular table with 39 place settings for important female figures, including Emily Dickinson and Georgia O'Keeffe, and it includes Kali with her own place setting at the table. The installation was originally exhibited in 1979, and in 2002 it was donated to the Brooklyn Museum, where it currently resides, by the Elizabeth A. Sackler Foundation. Kali is not represented in her physical form, instead her presence is indexed by the place setting attributed to her. The central image on the plate includes seeds which reference her relationship to the top cycles of nature, and bears a close resemblance to a vagina in shape and composition. Kali’s destructive and foreboding nature is present on this plate, as the red and brown colors are meant to represent demon blood, layers of luminaires on the runner to represent flayed skin, and the back of the runner appears to be an open mouth[13]. The way that each of these elements are presented to the audience, as well as the museum’s instance that this abstract representation has represented Kali as restorative rather than horrific, making the plate less challenging to look at for the viewer. Although the work is regarded as one of the most influential contemporary feminist art pieces, there has also been negative feedback referencing the lack of cultural awareness. It does seem as though some of the place settings have been added to the work to feign multicultural applications of white-feminism. Furthermore, the way that the piece has been exhibited, it has a very passive impact on the viewer.
Despite the mixed reception of this image, Kali is indisputably represented as a feminist icon here. Some of the main elements of Kali as a feminist icon are represented in the Brookelyn Museum’s description of Kali in Judy Chicago’s The Dinner Party (Kali place setting), specifically her as a paradoxical female figure. She is listed as a “complicated symbol, simultaneously feared and adored… associated with the opposing forces of destruction and death, as well as creation and salvation, she has been characterized as both vicious and nurturing”[14]. The piece also associates her with female religious or mythological figures, such as the Greek goddess Athena, as her name is placed directly under Kali’s place setting. In this piece, Kali’s power is referenced by the allusions to her significance as a powerful deity and as well as reduced to the power of the female reproductive system as the most striking feature of the palace setting is the vaginal imagery.
Figure 4: Judy Chicago (American, b. 1939). The Dinner Party (Kali place setting), 1974–79. Mixed media: ceramic, porcelain, textile. Brooklyn Museum, Gift of the Elizabeth A. Sackler Foundation, 2002.10
Kali in Commercial Western Art
Kali is also represented in contemporary Western art commercially, as an object for production and sale. One platform in which artists can share their work is Etsy, where objects are bought and sold online. There is a wide variety of art work sold on Etsy, including many pieces featuring Kali, done by Western artists and dispatched from locations such as the United States, Europe, and Canada. This emphasizes the consumerization of the image of Kali, as well as her “cleansed” Westernized characteristics.
Figure 5: Veda Jewelers, Kali Necklace, 2023, Etsy
Friendship and Freedom, the Kali Necklace, Available on Etsy
The Kali Necklace (2023) [Figure 5] , is a handmade pendant sold on Etsy by Veda Jewelry made from sterling silver and gold plate. The piece is handmade in India and sold and dispatched in the United States. As McDermott asserted, “Kali sells'', and Veda Jeweler has certainly taken that to heart. The necklace is heavily marketed on Etsy’s website as “meaningful friendship necklace”, “a perfect gift”, and as a “boho and hippie necklace”. The necklace is mass produced, sold for $109.00 CAD and delivered within three weeks of order placement. The production volume and quick accessibility of the product speaks to the ease with which one can represent Kali with little reference to cultural or historical context.
The appearance of Kali on the pendant is rather cartoonish, as she is represented in a bold outline in her most popular iconography, standing on top of Shiva with a weapon in her hand, and six arms. Nearly no details besides these are represented on the pendant, due to its small size. Here, Kali is represented as a feminist icon that can be turned into a product, as she is marketed by the artist she stands for friendship, freedom, and that death and disaster are “a lesson” that the owner of this necklace can overcome.
Figure 6: Luciana Hartwin, Kali, Goddess of Rebirth and Destruction and Transformation, 2023, Etsy
Liberation and Empowerment, Kali Hinduism Poster, Available on Etsy
Another piece of artwork, created and distributed by a Western artist, sold on Etsy is Kali, Goddess of Rebirth and Destruction and Transformation (2023) [Figure 6], available via digital download by American artist Luciana Hartwin. These digital downloads are sold for $8.37 CAD, therefore anyone can purchase, use, and access this image online.
This digital print offers an incredibly sexualized and Western-idealized portrait of the goddess. Kali is represented here on an ambiguous natural landscape, with an objectively beautiful form influenced by Western beauty standards. She has four long, thin arms, wide hips, protruding (nude yet nippleless) breasts, a small, muscular waist, and a face with dainty features and a blank expression. She is wearing a short skirt, dainty gold jewelry, effectively topless, and there is not a severed demon head or drop of blood in sight.
Kali is marketed as a feminist icon here as well, a statement from the artist stating that “this artwork portrays Kali, the fierce and transformative goddess of destruction and rebirth. With her multiple arms and fierce expression, she embodies the essence of empowerment and liberation.” By marketing Kali as the embodiment of empowerment, this creates an argument for her as a feminist icon that a customer would want to wear on their body to bring this sense of power and freedom into their lives.
Kali in Popular Culture and on Social Media
Images of Kali have also been shared and widely circulated on social media platforms. There are numerous instances in which the posts of the images have entered the realm of popular culture, whether that be due to the controversy of the image or the fame of the person creating the post. The intentions behind creating these images and the receptions of them are representative of attitudes towards using Kali as a feminist icon, as well as indicative of the way that digital imagery has changed perceptions in contemporary art.
Figure 7: Kali Image, 2017, Posted to Katy Perry’s Instagram Account
Katy Perry’s Kali
Kali Image (2017) [Figure 7] posted to Katy Perry’s Instagram Account shows Kali represented and understood as a feminist icon on social media as a part of popular culture. This Image, was posted by Katy Perry on instagram and twitter in 2017, with the caption “current mood”, which received a fair amount of backlash as documented by tabloid magazines such as FirstPost, ScoopWhoop, and Women’s Health and was eventually picked up by credible news outlets such as the British Broadcasting COrporation (BBC).
The image itself is rather cartoonish, depicting Kali with bright light blue skin, standing atop Shiva, with eight arms each holding something, including a demon head pushed very far to the right side and no blood. At the time she posted this image, Katy Perry had 63.5 million followers. Her decision to post this was covered by Tabloid magazines marking the backlash she received, as according to Firstpost “a majority of Instagram users slammed her for posting the picture, calling the move disrespectful”[17].
The singer’s interpretation and understanding of Kali was completely taken out of context in this post, and she seems to have instead taken the visual base levels of the image to convey a message of feminine power.
Kali Movie Poster
The Kali Movie Poster (2022) [Figure 8] was a promotional poster for the independent film “Kaali” by Toronto based artist Leena Manimekalai. Manimekalai is from Tamil Nadu, but produced and directed this film in Toronto, originally to show it at the Aga Khan Museums Under the Tent showcase. Cable News Network (CNN) article “Filmmaker Faces Death Threats over Controversial Hindu Goddess Poster” offers coverage of the viral image. The film itself transports Kali to a Western setting, described as “a performance documentary,” it imagines the Hindu goddess “descending onto a queer female filmmaker” and viewing Canada – and its diverse people – "through her eyes”.[18] At the end of the film, Kali “chooses love” and accepts a cigarette from “working-class street dwellers,” as the artist explained to CNN[19].
The poster depicts the director dressed as Kali, in a tinted blue light. In one of her many arms, she holds a weapon and is adorned with classic gold jewelry. In another hand, the goddess is depicted holding a cigarette to her mouth and smoking it. The arm reaching up the highest is holding a large rainbow pride flag. At the front of the poster, the name of the film is displayed in all capitalized letters in a vibrant red.
This promotional poster was shared via Twitter, and went viral sparking debates about the image on a global scale. There was especially negative backlash from Hindu Nationalists, which resulted in the hashtag #ArrestLeenaManimekalai and the artist receiving violent threats. These global debates and negative backlash resulted in a statement from the Indian High Commission in Canada uring for action against this “disrespectful depiction” and the Aga Khan Museum pulling the film from their Under the Tent showcase[20]. The artist has continued to defend the work, advocating for her artwork as an authentic representation of her personal relationship with religion and her interpretation of the goddess. Manimekalai has depicted her own interpretation of Kali as a feminist icon, who is accepting of everyone and as an advocate for the LGBTQ+ community.
Figure 8: Leena Manimekalai, Kaali Movie Poster, 2022, Aga Khan Museum
Discussion and Conclusion
The analysis of these images have revealed that in many cases contemporary depictions of Kali are created as a collaborative effort between many cultures and perspectives. The British Museum’s Murti, Leena Manimekalai’s Kaali Movie Poster, and the Kali Necklace produced by Veda Jewelers provide the most explicit examples of cross-cultural collaboration for the creation of these images. Interestingly, these images are not at all consistent in their representations of Kali, and do not all uniformly speak to traditional representations of the goddess. However, the generation of images with cross-cultural dialogue does provide further contextual clarity and more nuanced depictions than images which rely solely on a Western perspective such as Katy Perry’s Kali Image and Kali, Goddess of Rebirth and Destruction and Transformation by Luciana Hartwin. The materiality and processes used in the creation of these images are completely different in each depiction of Kali.
The display of each of these works is also greatly varied, and contributes to the reception of the images. Both Murti and The Dinner Party (Kali place setting) are displayed in prominent Western museums, and are seen by audiences within the setting of the museum. Mutri is presented as its own piece, as a part of a great exhibition focused on feminism, while Chicago’s representation of Kali is as a part of a much larger installation and was not meant to have been displayed alone originally. Kali Necklace and Kali Hinduism Poster are both displayed on Etsy’s website, therefore being sold in the same format. Although the pieces themselves are quite different, the display of small objects for sale with many reproductions speaks to McDermott’s analysis of the capitalist production of Kali imagery in the West. Both Katy Perry’s post and the Kaali Movie Poster were shared via social media platforms, displayed on Twitter and Instagram. Therefore, they can be shared, viewed, and reproduced by anyone who has access to these platforms and are viewing them in the setting and context of the viewing individual’s through the screen. The display of Kali’s icon graphic has become widely popularized, making the presence of this imagery available to a very wide Western audience in numerous settings.
The different display and creation of these contemporary art pieces has resulted in a wide array of receptions from their respective audiences. Images depicting Kali in the museum setting are privy to a select audience of those who are choosing to view the works in a specific setting. These images have been discussed and reviewed largely in academia, particularly Judy Chicago’s The Dinner Table, due to its high profile in contemporary feminist art. Commercial art pieces are interesting, because they are being sold on a smaller scale next to thousands of other objects available for purchase. Therefore, the audience is likely limited to those looking specifically for Kali imagery, or Hindu imagery, or general goddess imagery. The reception of these images are also likely positive for those who purchase them, and if they are disliked it is very low impact due to the large variety of inexpensive items to choose from. Once purchased, these objects can be received by the customer however they so choose, with a personal meaning and connection to the object dependent on the individual customer. Lastly, images that have gone viral have been first displayed through social media posting. The reception of these depictions of Kali have reached the widest audience in the shortest amount of time, as well as received the most backlash. Potential contributing factors to this negative reception of the images are the general lack of context able to be provided by posts on social media platforms, the ease with which the images can be shared, groupthink related to imagery, and distance between the person responsible for the post and the audience.
Each one of the contemporary pieces include key elements of Kali, although represented through different mediums. They all share a commonality of perceiving Kali as a feminist icon, however similarly to the difference in mediums, the representation of the goddess as a feminist varies across the works. Every single work analyzed in the scope of this research explicitly stated that Kali was being represented as a feminist icon either by the artist or in the context of its display. Murti has depicted Kali as a feminist icon as a part of the Feminine power: the divine to the demonic, which places this perception of her as a representation of feminine power alongside other powerful female religious and mythological figures. In The Dinner Party, Kali’s place setting also distinguishes her as a feminist icon, as she has a seat at the table with other iconic females from different backgrounds. In Kali Hinduism Poster, the iconography of Kali is being sold as a feminist icon, representing liberation, while in Kali Necklace she is being sold as a feminist icon representing friendship and freedom. Both the Kali Image and Kaali Movie Poster represent Kal through a personal perception of Kali as a feminist icon. For example, Katy Perry seems to have interpreted and presented the image of Kali as a symbol for female dominance and female rage. Leena Manimekalai also used personal perceptions of Kali to depict her personal relationship with her and chose to represent her as a champion for the queer female community.
Western contemporary representations of Kali’s iconography have seldom strayed from the evolution of Kali’s iconography related to the original visual shifts rooted in colonialism. In the majority of these works, Kali is recognizable as a powerful goddess, with very idealized body composition and facial structure. Therefore, the images could be described as beautiful and are easily digestible. The most prominent example of this is found in the Kali Hinduism Poster piece, as she is incredibly sexualized and lacking many of the features that could potentially be aesthetically unappealing such as the severed demon head, any reference to blood, clothing constructed from limbs, or weapon tree, instead she seems to be represented here as a ‘yoga queen’. Notably, the most striking depictions of Kali that do not adhere to the theme of image digestibility and aesthetic have received the most backlash in regard to her physical representation. Manimekalai’s Kaali Movie Poster is challenging to the viewer, and challenging to previous conceptions of Kali. Chicago’s The Dinner Party (Kali place setting) also offers a challenge to the viewer as it is clearly not meant to be aesthetically pleasing, but is meant to speak to raw sexual power. The art works that are for sale as opposed to displayed in a museum or posted online are the most accessible and aesthetically pleasing, and contributes to the argument that consumer culture continues to push towards hegemony and aesthetics in depictions of the goddess.
The conceptions of Kali as a feminist icon noted in Gross’s article are clearly represented in contemporary Western art, because among the pieces there are references to Kali’s bisexuality, her embodiment of paradoxical characteristics, strengths, and explicit sexuality. Furthermore, Dalmiya’s arguments from “Loving Paradoxes: A Feminist Reclamation of the Goddess Kali” are also represented in contemporary Western art. Many of these images, specifically Kaali Movie Poster, Kali Image, and The Dinner Party (Kali place setting) represent Kali as a feminist icon because she is representing a collapse of Western binary thinking related to heterosexuality and sexism. In all three of these images she has been taken out of context related to Hindu Kali-bhakti. McDermott’s arguments about overinterpretation and extreme appropriation are also evident in these contemporary works. Hartwin’s Kali Hinduism Poster, Chicago’s The Dinner Party (Kali place setting), and Katy Perry’s social media post arguably present both over interpretation and extreme appropriation of the goddess. However, as images become more accessible and both artists and audiences become more aware of the need for cultural and historical context there have been valiant attempts to create representations of Kali as a feminist icon that do include accurate cultural and historical perspectives. The British Museum’s Murti and Manimekalai’s Kaali Movie Poster, regardless of audience reception, were not created without an accurate understanding of religious, cultural, and historical contexts. There was an inclusion of perspectives that were not solely Western interpretations to represent Kali as a feminist icon in these works.
Analysis of visual imagery and contemporary artwork is important because it can lead to a significant increase in understanding the perspectives, attitudes, and trends that go into the creation and reception of art. Through the analysis of these images, Western attitudes about both the goddess Kali and feminism are able to be conceptualized related to visual discourse. As images become more accessible and consumerism continues to grow, it is important to continue to analyze the changing relationships between understanding cultural and historical context and feminism in contemporary art.
Endnotes
[1] McDermott and Kripal, Part II: Kali in Western Settings, Western Discourses. “Encountering Kali: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West, 2003, 250
[2] McDermott and Kripal 2003, 164
[3] Jain, Gods in the Bazaar: The Economies of Indian Calendar Art, 2007, 94
[4] Thakurta, “Women as ‘Calendar Art’ Icons: Emergence of Pictorial Stereotype in Colonial India,” 1991
[5] McDermott and Kripal 2003, 281
[6] McDermott 1996, Devi: Goddess in India, 281-305
[7] McDermott 1996, 281-305
[8] Tobler, “Goddesses and Women’s Spirituality: Transformative Symbols of the Feminine in Hindu Religion,” 2001
[9] Dalmiya, “Loving Paradoxes: A Feminist Reclamation of the Goddess Kali,” 2000
[10] McDermott 1996, 281-305
[11] “Feminine Power: Welcoming a New Goddess Kali Icon,” British Museum and London Durgotsav Committee 2022
[12] British Museum and London Durgotsav Committee 2022
[13] The Dinner Party (Kali place setting), Brooklyn Museum 2002
[14] Brooklyn Museum 2002
[15] Etsy 2023
[16] Etsy 2023
[17] First Post Staff 2017
[18] Holland, “Filmmaker Faces Death Threats over Controversial Hindu Goddess Poster,” 2002
[19] Holland 2002
[20] Holland 2022
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